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the lack of published estimates of selection on plasticity may also reflect the difficulty of making inferences about selection on plasticity from experiments, given the inherent difficulties in experimentally isolating the effects of plasticity from the effects of plasticity on other life-history traits, such as age or size at maturity. however, this difficulty in experimental design may itself be an artefact of the fact that researchers are often interested in addressing many questions of the adaptive value of plasticity, such as whether plasticity allows organisms to respond rapidly to changing conditions and whether plasticity is likely to be adaptive or not [ 37 ]. as a result, there may be a reluctance to experimentally test one aspect of the adaptive value of plasticity, such as whether plasticity is under selection. furthermore, natural populations may be selected to evolve against plasticity, for instance through random genetic drift. this could also reduce the likelihood of estimating selection on plasticity. finally, the lack of interest in investigating selection on plasticity may reflect a lack of interest in this question rather than an absence of published studies.

in any given year, the mean annual temperature is likely to be close to the optimum temperature for many organisms. as such, selection on plasticity is likely to be very weak. while the optimum temperature is the mean annual temperature for many organisms, the optimum temperature for many organisms will decrease with increasing temperature [ 38 ]. for example, in many temperate and tropical regions, the optimum temperature for insects is around 20°c, whereas the current mean annual temperature is more like 14°c.

we analysed selection on plasticity in three broad categories: (1) within populations and (2) between populations, and (3) within populations for different life stages. we also analysed selection on a broader category of plasticity, but these data are not presented here, as there was very little variation in this broad category.
our search identified 38 studies that met our criteria for selection analysis of plasticity. the table below provides a brief summary of all studies included in this review, including the species and the traits measured, and any other information that was provided (e.g. environment, phenotype, number of individuals measured). the specific traits that were measured are given in the table; these have been organised broadly into three groups: morphology, physiology, and fitness. we now review each of these categories in turn.
given the inconsistent nature of the evidence for selection on plasticity in the literature to date, we also focused on investigating the direction and strength of the relationships between plasticity and fitness. in particular, we were interested in testing whether reaction norms with steep slopes, either reflecting more plastic individuals, or a greater environmental variance of plasticity, would result in fitnesses being more strongly associated with plasticity. overall, the results of the 31 individual fitness regressions are largely consistent with this expectation. figure2 shows the three reaction norm slopes (linear regression coefficients of fitness on slope of plasticity) from the eight studies, where the coefficient for each reaction norm was calculated as the standardized regression coefficient between fitness and slope of plasticity. the mean correlation between a reaction norm slope and fitness was positive, but non-significant (r2 = 0.117, p = 0.259). when we pooled data across all eight studies, the mean correlation between the slope of a reaction norm and fitness was positive but non-significant (r2 = 0.112, p = 0.331).
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